Endoprosthesis having a non-fouling surface

ABSTRACT

An endoprosthesis, e.g., a stent, that includes a pro-healing surface and a temporary non-fouling material attached to the surface, and a method of making the same are disclosed.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority under 35 USC § 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/950,695, filed on Jul. 19, 2007, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to medical devices, such as endoprostheses that have a non-fouling surface.

BACKGROUND

The body includes various passageways including blood vessels such as arteries, and other body lumens. These passageways sometimes become occluded or weakened. For example, they can be occluded by a tumor, restricted by plaque, or weakened by an aneurysm. When this occurs, the passageway can be reopened or reinforced, or even replaced, with a medical endoprosthesis. An endoprosthesis is an artificial implant that is typically placed in a passageway or lumen in the body. Many endoprostheses are tubular members, examples of which include stents, stent-grafts, and covered stents.

Endoprosthesis can be delivered inside the body by a catheter that supports a reduced-size or compacted form of the endoprosthesis as it is transported to a desired site in the body, for example the site of weakening or occlusion in a body lumen. Upon reaching the desired site the endoprosthesis is expanded so that it can contact the walls of the lumen.

The expansion mechanism used to install the endoprosthesis may include forcing it to expand radially. For example, the expansion can be achieved with a catheter that carries a balloon in conjunction with a balloon-expandable endoprosthesis reduced in size relative to its final form in the body. The balloon is inflated to deform and/or expand the endoprosthesis in order to fix it at a predetermined position in contact with the lumen wall. The balloon can then be deflated, and the catheter withdrawn.

SUMMARY

In one aspect, the invention features an endoprosthesis, e.g., a stent, which has a surface including a catalytic material, and a non-fouling material attached to the surface, where the non-fouling material reduces adsorption of a protein to the surface.

In another aspect, the invention features a method of forming an endoprosthesis that includes coating a surface with a temporary non-fouling layer, where the surface has a catalytic material and the temporary non-fouling layer reduces adsorption of a protein to the surface and allowing H₂O₂ to reach the surface.

Aspects can include one or more of the following features. The catalytic material catalyzes decomposition of H₂O₂. The catalytic material is a ceramic. The catalytic material includes iridium oxide. The catalytic material is selected from titanium nitrate, and platinum activated carbon.

Aspects can also include one or more of the following features. The non-fouling material includes a hydrophilic compound, e.g., a hydrophilic polymer. The hydrophilic compound includes a polyethylene glycol (“PEG”). The PEG has a molecular weight of about 1,000 to about 50,000. The non-fouling material is releasable from the surface. The non-fouling material has a preferentially cleavable link connecting the material to the surface. The link is a hydrolysable bond, e.g., an ester bond. The non-fouling material forms a layer. The non-fouling material includes a first block and a second block that is between the first block and the surface. The first block has a primary function of repelling proteins and the second block has a primary function of linkage as to connect the first block to the surface. The first and second blocks are connected by a preferentially cleavable link. The first block comprises a PEG and the second block comprises an end functionalized silane, e.g. an aminosilane, e.g., aminopropyltriethoxysiliane (“APTES”), and/or an endothelial cell binding agent, e.g., an RGD peptide fragment. The second block and the surface can be connected by a preferentially cleavable link, e.g., a hydrolysable bond. The second block can also be permanently connected to the surface.

Aspects may also include one or more of the following features. The surface which has the catalytic material is modified with an aminosilane, e.g., APTES, before coating the surface with the non-fouling layer, and/or the surface is modified with an endothelial cell binding agent, e.g., an RGD peptide fragment, before coating the surface with the non-fouling layer.

Aspects and/or embodiments may have one or more of the following additional advantages. The endoprosthesis, e.g., stent, has a pro-healing or catalytic surface (e.g., IROX) that effectively scavenges hydrogen peroxide triggered by implantation. However, protein adsorption on such a surface can diminish its effect. By forming a temporary or short-term non-fouling layer on the pro-healing surface it can temporarily resist the adsorption of proteins and/or adhesion of cells particularly during the initial inflammatory response stage when H₂O₂ is being generated in the highest concentration. The non-fouling layer which allows H₂O₂ diffusion to the surface thereby prolongs duration of the pro-healing surface to convert H₂O₂ to water and oxygen. Once the release of hydrogen peroxide ceases or subsides, the non-fouling layer is biodegraded away, therefore allowing the pro-healing surface to be naturally endothelialized or exposing the underlying endothelial cell binding agent(s) to assist endothelialization of the endoprosthesis. The duration of time that the non-fouling layer remains on the surface is predetermined by selecting the linkage chemistry between each non-fouling moiety and the surface. The linkage chemistry can be covalent or non-covalent, e.g. by physical forces of attraction.

Other aspects, features, and advantages will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-1C are longitudinal cross-sectional views, illustrating delivery of a stent in a collapsed state, expansion of the stent, and the deployment of the stent in a body lumen.

FIG. 2A is a schematic cross-sectional view of a region of a stent; FIGS. 2B-2D are schematic cross-sectional views of the stent region after its implantation.

FIGS. 3A-3C are schematics of a non-fouling moiety separating from a pro-healing surface.

FIGS. 4A and 4B are illustrations of an embodiment of a non-fouling surface.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Referring to FIGS. 1A-1C, during implantation of a stent 10, the stent is placed over a balloon 12 carried near a distal end of a catheter 14, and is directed through a lumen 15 (FIG. 1A) until the portion carrying the balloon and stent reaches the region of an occlusion 18. The stent is then radially expanded by inflating balloon 12 and compressed against the vessel wall with the result that occlusion 18 is compressed, and the vessel wall surrounding it undergoes a radial expansion (FIG. 1B). The pressure is then released from the balloon and the catheter is withdrawn from the vessel (FIG. 1C), leaving the stent 10 fixed within lumen 15.

Referring to FIG. 2A, a schematic cross-sectional view of a region of a stent near its surface, a non-fouling material in form of a layer 22 having non-fouling moieties overlies a pro-healing surface 21, e.g., a ceramic such as iridium oxide (“IROX”), on top of the stent body 20, formed e.g. of a metal such as stainless steel or a polymer. Referring to FIG. 2B, immediately after the stent is implanted in a body lumen, the non-fouling layer 22 repels proteins to prevent protein adsorption and allows H₂O₂ to diffuse onto the pro-healing surface 21 to catalytically decompose into water and oxygen molecules. Referring to FIGS. 2C and 2D, after the stent is implanted for a period of time, e.g., substantially as long as the body ceases releasing high levels of H₂O₂ caused by stent implantation (e.g., about 1-2 weeks), the non-fouling layer 22 has been biodegraded or disintegrated from the pro-healing surface 21, and proteins migrate to and specifically adsorb onto the pro-healing surface, followed by cell adhesion on top of them, which leads to the natural endothelialization of the surface.

When a foreign body, such as a stent, is introduced into a biological environment (e.g., in vivo), the surface of the foreign body is usually coated with nonspecifically adsorbed proteins in seconds due to the biological body's natural defense mechanism. More specifically, one of the first responses of the human body to the implantation of a stent into the blood vessels is the activation of leukocytes, white blood cells which are one of the constituent elements of the circulating blood system. This activation causes a burst of reactive oxygen compound production. One of the key molecules in this process is hydrogen peroxide, e.g., H₂O₂, released by neutrophil granulocytes which constitute one of the many types of leukocytes. The presence of H₂O₂ may increase proliferation of smooth muscle cells and compromise endothelial cell function, stimulating the expression of surface binding proteins. These surface proteins enhance the attachment of even more inflammatory cells. A temporary or short-term non-fouling layer on a pro-healing surface can temporarily resist the adsorption of proteins and/or adhesion of cells particularly during the initial inflammatory response stage when H₂O₂ is being generated in the highest concentration. The non-fouling layer which allows H₂O₂ diffusion to the surface thereby prolongs duration of the pro-healing surface to convert H₂O₂ to water and oxygen. Once the release of hydrogen peroxide ceases or subsides, the non-fouling layer is biodegraded away, therefore allowing the pro-healing surface to be naturally endothelialized. The duration of the non-fouling layer remaining on the surface is predetermined by controlling the linkage strength (or hydrolysis resistance) between each non-fouling moiety and the surface. The non-fouling layer can be used with non-catalytic layers or applied directly to the body of the stent.

The non-fouling layer includes non-fouling moieties. In embodiments, surfaces which strongly adsorb proteins may also bind cells, and surfaces which resist protein adsorption will also resist cell adhesion. Hydrophobic surfaces have strong tendency to adsorb proteins irreversibly. A desirable approach to reducing protein and cell binding to surfaces is to make them more hydrophilic by applying a non-fouling layer to them. Non-fouling moieties may not only allow hydrogen peroxide to pass though and reach the pro-healing surface due to their permeability to small molecules dissolved in aqueous biological media, but also resist protein adsorption attributed to a steric hindrance effect due to the attached molecular chains. It is believed that reversible deformation of the tethered chains (e.g., polymer chains) due to invasion of mobile protein molecules into the non-fouling layer would lead to a repulsive force which is governed by the balance of entropic elasticity of the chains and osmotic pressure owing to the rise in the segment concentration (e.g., concentration of polymer segments). The overlapped repulsive force can prevent the direct contact of protein molecules with the underlying surface. In further embodiments, the non-fouling moieties include hydrophilic polymers or organic molecules, e.g., polyethylene glycol (“PEG”) molecules, oligoethylene glycol (“oligoEG”) molecules, lipid-oligoEG molecules, Pluracol polyol or Pluronic polyol (available from BASF) such as copolymers of propylene glycol and ethylene glycol, poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (“PHEMA”), polyvinylpyrrolidone (“PVP”), polyacrylic acid (“PAA”) and its derivatives such as polyacrylamide (“PAAm”), ethylene vinyl acetate vinyl alcohol copolymers (“EVA”), polymers with neutral hydrophilic surface groups such as hydroxyls, polymers with negatively charged surface groups such as carboxylic acids or sulfonic acids or their salts, glyme, phosphoryl choline polymers (e.g., poly(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) or “PMPC”), polysaccharides, liposaccharides (e.g., gangliosides), glycoproteins (e.g., mucin), and phospholipids. In a particular embodiment, the non-fouling moieties are PEGs. In further embodiments, PEGs of about 1,000 to about 50,000 Dalton molecular weight (“MW”) are utilized. Suitable non-fouling moieties and surface modification technologies are described by Pacetti, U.S. Pat. No. 7,056,591; Alberte, U.S. Pat. No. 7,087,661; Uyama, Advances in Polymer Science, 137, 24-28 (1998); Su, Polym. Prep., 28, 292-294 (1987); Hoffman, J. Biomater. Sci. Polymer Edn., 10, 1011-1014 (1999); and Wang, Surface and Coatings Technology, 196, 307-311 (2005).

In embodiments, the non-fouling compounds or moieties are releasable from the pro-healing surface after a desired period of time. For example, the temporary non-fouling moieties resist the adsorption of proteins and/or adhesion of cells for a certain period of time, particularly during the initial inflammatory response stage when H₂O₂ is being generated in the highest concentration. In embodiments, this period of time is predetermined to be from about 1 day to about 1 month. Once the production of hydrogen peroxide ceases or subsides, the non-fouling compounds or moieties are released so that the pro-healing surface can be naturally endothelialized. In some embodiments, the non-fouling moieties are released through biodegradation. For example, the non-fouling moieties are attached to the surface by a hydrolysable link, e.g., an ester or amide bond. The time of release can be controlled by selecting the hydrolysis resistance of the link and/or by controlling the access of water to the hydrolysable link. For example, typically, an amide bond is more hydrolytically stable than an ester bond. As a result, an ester linking will hydrolyze more readily resulting in more rapid release. The release rate can also be controlled by modifying the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity and the steric hindrance around the hydrolysable link to increase or decrease the hydrolysis time as described in more detail below. In other embodiments, the non-fouling moieties can be dissolved or enzymatically decomposed in a biological environment.

Referring to FIGS. 3A-3C, schematics of an explanatory mechanism for a temporary non-fouling moiety 22 separating from a pro-healing surface 21 are shown. Referring particularly to FIG. 3A, a simplified schematic structure of the non-fouling moiety 22 includes two blocks 31 and 33 connected by a link 32. Block 33 has a primary function of repelling proteins whereas block 31 has a primary function of linkage as to connect the repelling block to the pro-healing surface 21. The link 32 is predetermined to have a specific hydrolysis resistance so that it may hydrolyze after a predetermined amount of time, e.g., as long as it takes for the body to cease producing substantial amount of H₂O₂ when a medical device is implanted. The non-fouling moiety is attached to the surface 21 via a link 30. The link 30 may be covalent, e.g. a covalent bond, or non-covalent, e.g. a hydrogen bond, an ionic bond, a Van der Waals force, or any of the other intermolecular forces.

In embodiments, repelling block 33 is a non-fouling compound or moiety, as discussed above, e.g., a PEG molecule, and linkage block 31 includes a silane or silane derivative, e.g., an aminosilane, with link 32 being a hydrolysable link (e.g., ester or amide bond), the strength of which is controlled by selecting the hydrolysis resistance and/or by controlling the access of water to the hydrolysable link, e.g., by modifying the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity of the hydrolysable link as well as the steric hindrance and/or hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity around the hydrolysable link to increase or decrease the hydrolysis time. For example, hydrophilicity can be controlled by increasing the number of methylene (—CH₂—) groups on either side or both sides of the hydrolysable link, e.g., by increasing the molecular weight (“MW”) of the silane molecule. In embodiments, MW of PEG is selected from about 1,000 to about 50,000. For another example, the steric hindrance around the hydrolysable link can be increased by incorporating bulky side groups or side chains, e.g, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl or t-butyl group, into the link on either or both sides of the hydrolysable link so that water molecules cannot readily access the hydrolysable link. In some embodiments, the side groups are selected from branched aliphatic compounds or moieties. In other embodiments, the side groups are selected from branched aromatic compounds or moieties. For yet another example, the hydrophobicity around the hydrolysable link can be increased, e.g., by adding hydrophobic moiety between PEG and the hydrolysable link and/or between silane and the hydrolysable link. In embodiments, link 30 is either a Si—O bond or an adhesive interaction between the surface and the silane moieties. A silane layer is disclosed further in Duwez, Nature Nanotechnology, 1, 122-125 (2006).

Referring particularly to FIG. 3B, the link 32 is broken in a biological environment, e.g., by hydrolysis, and the repelling block 33 leaves the surface. Referring particularly to FIG. 3C, the linkage block 31 is exposed once the repelling block 33 leaves, and link 30 subsequently recedes or gets counteracted via, e.g., a chemical bond breaking or collision from macromolecules of the body, releasing the linkage block 31. In some embodiments, linkage block 31 is optional and the non-fouling moiety 22 only includes the repelling block 33. In other embodiments, linkage block 31 remains attached to the surface 21 and it includes a biobeneficial moiety such as an endothelial cell (“EDC”) binding agent or a polymer linked with an EDC binding agent which enhances desired adsorption of any specific protein(s). In further embodiments, EDC binding agent is an RGD peptide, or a compound having an RGD peptide fragment. For example, portion 31 in FIG. 3B, can be a peptide with an RGD fragment permanently bonded to the surface. More examples of EDC binding agents and technologies are disclosed by Manicka, International Publication No. WO 2006/124365.

In embodiments, the pro-healing surface is achieved by applying pro-healing compounds to a surface. In embodiments, the pro-healing compounds are selected from ceramics, such as iridium oxide (“IROX”), titanium nitrate, or platinum activated carbon, or any compounds known to be reactive with peroxides or to be pro-healing by other means. A pro-healing or catalytic surface enhances healing by, e.g., scavenging H₂O₂, however the surface binding proteins that immediately adsorb nonspecifically on the pro-healing surface prevent H₂O₂ from diffusing to the surface therefore hinder the catalytic functions of the surface. In particular embodiments, IROX, which has therapeutic benefits such as enhancing endothelialization (IROX and other ceramics are discussed further in Alt et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,980,566), is applied to a stent surface by various coating processes. For example, IROX can be coated on the stent surface by submerging the stent in a solution of an iridium compound followed by drying and oxidizing the surface to get IROX, or by physical vapor deposition, e.g., pulsed layer deposition or sputtering of iridium metal or iridium oxide. Detailed description of the solution coating procedures and advantages of using IROX as stent coating have been disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,245,104, the entire disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference.

In particular embodiments, the pro-healing surface has a select roughness or morphology as described in U.S. Ser. No. 11/752,772, filed May 23, 2007 [Attorney Docket No. 10527-805001] and U.S. Ser. No. 11/752,736, filed May 23, 2007 [Attorney Docket No. 10527-801001] and appendices. In embodiments, the morphology of the pro-healing surface can be varied between relatively rough surfaces and relatively smooth surfaces, which can each provide particular mechanical and therapeutic advantages. In one case, the pro-healing surface can have a morphology characterized by defined grains and high roughness. In another case, the pro-healing surface can have a morphology characterized by a higher coverage, globular surface of generally lower roughness. The defined grain, high roughness morphology provides a high surface area characterized by crevices between and around spaced grains into which, e.g., the non-fouling compounds can be deposited and interlock to the surface, greatly enhancing adhesion. Defined grain morphologies also allow for greater freedom of motion and are less likely to fracture as the stent is flexed in use and thus the pro-healing surface resists delamination of the pro-healing ceramic from an underlying substrate and reduces delamination of an overlaying non-fouling coating. Smoother globular surface morphology provides a surface which is tuned to facilitate endothelial growth by selection of its chemical composition and/or morphological features.

The morphology of the pro-healing surface of the ceramic is characterized by its visual appearance, the size and arrangement of particular morphological features such as local maxima, and/or its roughness. For example, in one case, the surface is characterized by definable sub-micron sized grains. In embodiments, the grains have a length, L, of the of about 50 to 500 nm, e.g. about 100-300 nm, and a width, W, of about 5 nm to 50 nm, e.g. about 10-15 nm. The grains have an aspect ratio (length to width) of about 5:1 or more, e.g. 10:1 to 20:1. The grains overlap in one or more layers. The separation between grains can be about 1-50 nm. In particular embodiments, the grains resemble rice grains. In another case, the surface is characterized by a more continuous surface having a series of shallow globular features. The globular features are closely adjacent with a narrow minima between features. In embodiments, the surface resembles an orange peel. The diameter of the globular features is about 100 nm or less, and the depth of the minima, or the height of the maxima of the globular function is e.g. about 50 nm or less, e.g. about 20 nm or less. In other embodiments, the surface has characteristics between high aspect ratio definable grains and the more continuous globular surface. For example, the surface can include low aspect ratio, thin planar flakes. The morphology type is visible in FESEM images at 50 KX.

Morphologies are also characterized by the size and arrangement of morphological features such as the spacing, height and width of local morphological maxima. For example, a surface of the ceramic is characterized by the center-to-center distance and/or height, and/or diameter and/or density of local maxima. In particular embodiments, the average height, distance and diameter are in the range of about 400 nm or less, e.g. about 20-200 nm. In particular, the average center-to-center distance is about 0.5 to 2× the diameter. In a particular embodiment, the morphology type is a globular morphology, the width of local maxima is in the range of about 100 nm or less and the peak height is about 20 nm or less. In particular embodiments, the ceramic has a peak height of less than about 5 nm, e.g., about 1-5 nm, and/or a peak distance less than about 15 nm, e.g., about 10-15 nm. In yet another particular embodiment, the morphology is defined as a grain type morphology. The width of local maxima is about 400 nm or less, e.g. about 100-400 nm, and the height of local maxima is about 400 nm or less, e.g. about 100-400 nm. Both the select morphologies (globular and grain types) of the ceramic can be formed on a thin layer of substantially uniform, generally amorphous IROX, which is in turn formed on a layer of iridium metal, which is in turn deposited on a metal substrate, such as titanium or stainless steel. The spacing, height and width parameters can be calculated from AFM data. A suitable computational technique is provided in appendices of U.S. Ser. No. 11/752,772, filed May 23, 2007 [Attorney Docket No. 10527-805001] and U.S. Ser. No. 11/752,736, filed May 23, 2007 [Attorney Docket No. 10527-801001], supra.

EXAMPLE

Appling pro-healing coating to surface of the medical device, e.g., an endoprosthesis, by plasma vapor deposition of IROX; treating the surface with oxygen plasma to increase oxygen content of IROX; silanizing the surface with aminopropyltriethoxysiliane (“APTES”) which grafts the surface with amine groups; and reacting the grafted surface with NHS-WL-PEG which is a molecule of PEG attached to N-hydroxysuccinimide (“NHS”) via a weak link (“WL”), e.g., a second ester bond. More specifically, WL has the following formula:

where R₁ and R₂ include hydrocarbon moieties or covalent bonds. The dotted lines indicate that the molecule extends beyond R₁ and R₂.

Silanization of a substrate is carried out in a solution of ethanol and acetic acid. First, 50 μL acetic acid is added to 100 mL of absolute ethanol. Then APTES is added to the ethanol solution to a 1:100 volume ratio with the ethanol. The mixture is allowed to stand for 30 minutes before the substrate is put in. The mixture is then agitated gently for 3 hours. The substrate is then retrieved from the solution and rinsed with copious amounts of ethanol to get rid of all the unreacted silane. And the silanized or the grafted substrate is stored in ethanol before the next reaction step. Referring to FIG. 4A, a pro-healing surface has been modified with APTES.

The reaction between the grafted substrate and NHS-WL-PEG molecules (PEG with MW 2000-20,000, available from Nippon Oil and Fat (NOF), e.g. http://www.nof.co.jp/english/business/dds/pegylation/activated_peg.html#b1) is carried out by first putting the substrate in a pH 9.5 solution of 0.5 M sodium borate decahydrate. Then a pH 4, 0.01 M sodium phosphate buffer solution of NHS-WL-PEG (10% w/w) of the same volume is added into the sodium borate solution. The mixture is gently agitated for 1 hour to allow the reaction to occur. When the reaction is completed, the substrate has PEG molecules bound to it via a weak link. The substrate is then rinsed with copious amounts of de-ionized (“DI”) water, followed by absolute ethanol, and dried completely and stored dry until ready for use. Referring to FIG. 4B, a PEG-WL moiety has been connected to the aminosilane-modified pro-healing surface by a room temperature reaction.

The endoprostheses, e.g., stents, described herein can be configured for vascular, e.g. coronary and peripheral vasculature or non-vascular lumens. For example, they can be configured for use in the esophagus or the prostate. Other lumens include biliary lumens, hepatic lumens, pancreatic lumens, and uretheral lumens.

Any stent described herein can be dyed or rendered radio-opaque by addition of, e.g., radio-opaque materials such as barium sulfate, platinum or gold, or by coating with a radio-opaque material. The stent can include (e.g., be manufactured from) metallic materials, such as stainless steel (e.g., 316L, BioDur®) 108 (UNS S29108), and 304L stainless steel, and an alloy including stainless steel and 5-60% by weight of one or more radiopaque elements (e.g., Pt, Ir, Au, W) (PERSS®) as described in US-2003-0018380-A1, US-2002-0144757-A1, and US-2003-0077200-A1), Nitinol (a nickel-titanium alloy), cobalt alloys such as Elgiloy, L605 alloys, MP35N, titanium, titanium alloys (e.g., Ti—6Al—4V, Ti—50Ta, Ti—10Ir), platinum, platinum alloys, niobium, niobium alloys (e.g., Nb—1Zr) Co—28Cr—6Mo, tantalum, and tantalum alloys. Other examples of materials are described in commonly assigned U.S. application Ser. No. 10/672,891, filed Sep. 26, 2003; and U.S. application Ser. No. 11/035,316, filed Jan. 3, 2005. Other materials include elastic biocompatible metal such as a superelastic or pseudo-elastic metal alloy, as described, for example, in Schetsky, L. McDonald, “Shape Memory Alloys”, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (3rd ed.), John Wiley & Sons, 1982, vol. 20. pp. 726-736; and commonly assigned U.S. application Ser. No. 10/346,487, filed Jan. 17, 2003.

The stent can be of a desired shape and size (e.g., coronary stents, aortic stents, peripheral vascular stents, gastrointestinal stents, urology stents, tracheal/bronchial stents, and neurology stents). Depending on the application, the stent can have a diameter of between, e.g., about 1 mm to about 46 mm. In certain embodiments, a coronary stent can have an expanded diameter of from about 2 mm to about 6 mm. In some embodiments, a peripheral stent can have an expanded diameter of from about 4 mm to about 24 mm. In certain embodiments, a gastrointestinal and/or urology stent can have an expanded diameter of from about 6 mm to about 30 mm. In some embodiments, a neurology stent can have an expanded diameter of from about 1 mm to about 12 mm. An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) stent and a thoracic aortic aneurysm (TAA) stent can have a diameter from about 20 mm to about 46 mm. The stent can be balloon-expandable, self-expandable, or a combination of both. Further discussion of stents and stent delivery are provided in Heath, U.S. Pat. No. 6,290,721. The non-fouling coating can be provided on all surfaces of a stent, luminal, abluminal and cutface or only select surfaces, e.g. abluminal and/or cutface surfaces.

All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

Still further embodiments are in the following claims. 

1. An endoprosthesis, comprising: a surface comprising a catalytic material, and a non-fouling material attached to the surface, wherein the material reduces adsorption of a protein to the surface.
 2. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the catalytic material catalyzes decomposition of H₂O₂.
 3. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the catalytic material is a ceramic.
 4. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the catalytic material comprises iridium oxide.
 5. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the catalytic material is selected from titanium nitrate, and platinum activated carbon.
 6. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the non-fouling material comprises a hydrophilic compound.
 7. The endoprosthesis of claim 6, wherein the compound comprises a PEG.
 8. The endoprosthesis of claim 7, wherein the PEG has a molecular weight of about 1,000 to about 50,000.
 9. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the non-fouling material is releasable from the surface.
 10. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the non-fouling material has a preferentially cleavable link connecting the material to the surface.
 11. The endoprosthesis of claim 10, wherein the link is hydrolysable.
 12. The endoprosthesis of claim 10, wherein the link is an ester bond.
 13. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the non-fouling material forms a layer.
 14. The endoprosthesis of claims 1, wherein the non-fouling material comprises a first block and a second block that is between the first block and the surface.
 15. The endoprosthesis of claim 14, wherein the first block has a primary function of repelling proteins.
 16. The endoprosthesis of claim 14, wherein the second block has a primary function of linkage as to connect the first block to the surface.
 17. The endoprosthesis of claim 14, wherein the first and second blocks are connected by a preferentially cleavable link.
 18. The endoprosthesis of claim 17, wherein the second block and the surface are connected by a preferentially cleavable link.
 19. The endoprosthesis of claim 17, wherein the link is hydrolysable.
 20. The endoprosthesis of claim 14, wherein the first block comprises a PEG and the second block comprises an aminosilane.
 21. The endoprosthesis of claim 19, wherein the first block comprises a PEG and the second block comprises an aminosilane.
 22. The endoprosthesis of claim 19, wherein the first block comprises a PEG and the second block comprises a endothelial cell binding agent.
 23. The endoprosthesis of claim 21, wherein the second block further comprises an endothelial cell binding agent.
 24. The endoprosthesis of claim 22, wherein the endothelial cell binding agent comprises an RGD peptide fragment.
 25. A method of forming an endoprosthesis, comprising: coating a surface with a temporary non-fouling layer, the surface comprising a catalytic material, the layer reducing adsorption of a protein to the surface and allowing H₂O₂ to the surface.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the surface comprises IROX.
 27. The method of claim 25, wherein the non-fouling layer comprises a hydrophilic polymer.
 28. The method of claim 25, further comprising modifying the surface with an aminosilane before coating the surface with the layer.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the aminosilane is APTES.
 30. The method of claim 28, wherein the layer comprises a hydrophilic polymer.
 31. The method of claim 27, wherein the polymer has a hydrolysable link connecting the polymer to the surface.
 32. The method of claim 30, wherein the polymer has a hydrolysable link connecting the polymer to the aminosilane.
 33. The method of claim 25, further comprising modifying the surface with an endothelial cell binding agent before coating the surface with the layer.
 34. The method of claim 33, wherein the endothelial cell binding agent comprises an RGD peptide segment.
 35. The method of claim 33, wherein the layer comprises a hydrophilic polymer.
 36. The method of claim 35, wherein the polymer has a hydrolysable link connecting the polymer to the endothelial cell binding agent. 